YouSaid · the spoken record

Robert Langer

lines on the record: 74
first: 2020-06-30
most recent: 2020-06-30
sittings or episodes: 1
sources: podcast

Every line below is reproduced as it was said and linked to the record it came from. Nothing here is summarised or generated. Directory · Search · Corrections

“Students, you know, I mean, I really feel when I look at that. I mean, we've probably had, you know, close to a thousand students go through the lab. And I mean, they've done incredibly well. I think 18 are in the National Academy of Engineering, 16 in the National Academy of Medicine. I mean, I mean, they've done, I think, eight or faculty at MIT, maybe about 12 at Harvard. I mean, so, you know, it really makes you feel good to think that the people, you know, they're not my children, but they're close to my children in a way and, you know, makes you feel really good to see them have such great lives and them do so much good and be happy.”
2020-06-30 · Lex Fridman Podcast · #105 – Robert Langer: Edison of Medicine · IDENTIFIED FROM THE TRANSCRIPT · source
“Same thing, same thing. You have to go to see some of David Edward's stuff. You know, he was one of my postdocs and he's a professor at Harvard, but he also started cafe art sciences. And, you know, which is a really cool restaurant around here. But he also has companies that, um, Ways of looking at fragrances and trying to use engineering in new ways. And so I think, I mean, that's just an example, but I expect someday that AI and engineering will play a role in almost everything.”
2020-06-30 · Lex Fridman Podcast · #105 – Robert Langer: Edison of Medicine · IDENTIFIED FROM THE TRANSCRIPT · source
“No, I think it'll be a combination of biology and engineering. I think it'll be biology to understand the right genetic mechanisms to solve this problem and maybe the right immunological mechanisms and engineering in the sense of producing the molecules, developing the right delivery systems, targeting it or whatever else needs to be done.”
2020-06-30 · Lex Fridman Podcast · #105 – Robert Langer: Edison of Medicine · IDENTIFIED FROM THE TRANSCRIPT · source
“I don't think very many things are solvable in a few years. There's some good ideas that people are working on. I mean, all cancers, that's pretty tough”
2020-06-30 · Lex Fridman Podcast · #105 – Robert Langer: Edison of Medicine · IDENTIFIED FROM THE TRANSCRIPT · source
“Yeah, well, I think that's a great question. I think that the department has to have a vision. And some of them do every so often there are institutes or labs that do that. I mean, in MIT, That's done sometimes. I know Mechanical Engineering Department just had a search and they hired Geo Traverso, who is one of my, he was a fellow with me, but he's actually a molecular biologist and a gastroinerologist. And he's one of the best in the world. But he's also done some great mechanical engineering and designing some new pills and things like that. picked him and boy I give them a lot of credit i mean that's that's that's vision to pick somebody and and i think you know they'll be the richer for it i think the media lab has certainly hired you know people like ed boyden and others who have done uh you know very different things and so i think that uh you know that that that's part of the vision of the leadership who who do things like that”
2020-06-30 · Lex Fridman Podcast · #105 – Robert Langer: Edison of Medicine · IDENTIFIED FROM THE TRANSCRIPT · source
“That they may be at odds with each other because a far more lab like ours, which is moulder is might be very good at addressing some of those kinds of problems, but I'm not young. I train a lot of people who are young, but it's not the same as helping somebody who's an assistant professor someplace. So I think what's, I think, been good about our society or things overall are that there are people who come at it from different ways. And the combination, the confluence of the government funding, the certain foundations that fund things and other foundations that want to see disease treated, well, then they can go seek out people or they can put a request for proposals and see who does the best. You know, I'd say both David Koch and Bill Gates did exactly that. They sought out people. Boston or their foundation.”
2020-06-30 · Lex Fridman Podcast · #105 – Robert Langer: Edison of Medicine · IDENTIFIED FROM THE TRANSCRIPT · source
“Yeah, that comes. And I think that's what people do. I mean, I have never seen anybody do it otherwise. I mean, and that, by the way, may not be the... Thing overall, I mean, I think it's good that all those things happen, but what you really want to do, and I'll make a contrast in a second. In addition to funding important areas like what both of those people did is to help young people.”
2020-06-30 · Lex Fridman Podcast · #105 – Robert Langer: Edison of Medicine · IDENTIFIED FROM THE TRANSCRIPT · source
“Vision, why don't you start out with that vision, whatever vision it is, then I think you try to Ask the question Who in the world does the best work if that was your goal? I mean, but you really, I think, have to have a defined vision.”
2020-06-30 · Lex Fridman Podcast · #105 – Robert Langer: Edison of Medicine · IDENTIFIED FROM THE TRANSCRIPT · source
“Sure. Well, I think what I do, the first thing is different. Philanthropists have different visions. And I think the first thing is to form a concrete vision of what you want. Some people, I mean, I'll just give you two examples of people that I know, David Koch was very interested in cancer research, and part of that was that he had cancer. And prostate cancer. And a number of people do that along those lines. They've had somebody, they've either had cancer themselves or somebody they loved had cancer and they want to put money into cancer research. Bill Gates, on the other hand, I think when he had got his fortune, I mean, he thought about it and felt, well, how could he have the greatest impact? And he thought about, you know, helping people in the developing world and medicines and different things like that, like vaccines that might be really helpful for people in the developing world. And so I think first you start out with that.”
2020-06-30 · Lex Fridman Podcast · #105 – Robert Langer: Edison of Medicine · IDENTIFIED FROM THE TRANSCRIPT · source
“Say the last 10 or 15 years we've done pretty well funding, but I always worry about it. You know, it's like you're still operating on more soft money than hard. And so I always worry about it, but we've been fortunate that. Places have come to us like the Gates Foundation and others Juvenile Diabetes Foundation, some companies, and they're willing to give us funding and we've gotten government money as well. We have a number of NIH grants and I've always had that. And that's important to me too. So I worry about it, but I just view that as a part of the process.”
2020-06-30 · Lex Fridman Podcast · #105 – Robert Langer: Edison of Medicine · IDENTIFIED FROM THE TRANSCRIPT · source
“Well, first, I think owing to industry is good, but I think being in academia is good. I have lots of students who have done both, and they've had great careers doing both. I think from an academic standpoint, I mean, the biggest concern probably that people feel today, you know, at a place like MIT or other research heavy institutions is going to be funding and particular funding that's not super directed so that you can do basic research. I think that's probably the number one thing. It would be great if we as a society could come up with better ways to teach so that people all over could learn better. So I think there are a number of things that would be good to be able to do better.”
2020-06-30 · Lex Fridman Podcast · #105 – Robert Langer: Edison of Medicine · IDENTIFIED FROM THE TRANSCRIPT · source
“I think so. I think I try to do that by talking to people, going over their ideas and their progress. I try to do it as an individual. You know, certainly when I talk about my own career, I had my setbacks at different times and people know that, that know me. And, you know, you just try to keep pushing and so forth. But yeah, I think I try to do that as the one who leads the lamb.”
2020-06-30 · Lex Fridman Podcast · #105 – Robert Langer: Edison of Medicine · IDENTIFIED FROM THE TRANSCRIPT · source
“Well, the big questions come from many different ways. Sometimes it's trying to things that I might think of or somebody in the lab might think of, which could be a new technique or to understand something better. But gee, we've had people like Bill Gates and the Gates Foundation come to us and juvenile diabetes foundation come to us and say, gee, could you help us on these things? And I mean, that's good too. It doesn't happen just one way.”
2020-06-30 · Lex Fridman Podcast · #105 – Robert Langer: Edison of Medicine · IDENTIFIED FROM THE TRANSCRIPT · source
“I think when people feel, I mean, this is going to sound like again simplistic or maybe like motherhood and apple pie, but I think if people feel they're working on something really important that can affect many other people's lives and they're making some progress, they'll feel good about it. They'll feel good about themselves and they'll be happy.”
2020-06-30 · Lex Fridman Podcast · #105 – Robert Langer: Edison of Medicine · IDENTIFIED FROM THE TRANSCRIPT · source
“I don't know that I'm an expert. I think that what you do to me, I mean, I just want, I mean, this is going to sound very simplistic, but I just want people in the lab to be happy, to be doing things that I hope will make the world a better place, to be working on science that can make the world a better place. And I guess my feeling is if we're able to do that It kind of runs itself.”
2020-06-30 · Lex Fridman Podcast · #105 – Robert Langer: Edison of Medicine · IDENTIFIED FROM THE TRANSCRIPT · source
“Well, I think they're a part of the process, but I'd say there's probably, I'm going to just make this up, maybe six or seven criteria that you want to use, and it's not just science. I mean, the kinds of things that I would think about is the market big or small? Are there good animal models for it so that you could test it and it wouldn't take 50 years? Are the clinical trials that could be set up ones that Have clear endpoints where you can make a judgment. And another issue would be competition. Are there other ways that some companies out there are doing it? Another issue would be reimbursement. Can it get reimbursed? So a lot of things have manufacturing issues you'd want to consider. So I think there are really a lot of things that go into what you do first, second, third, or fourth.”
2020-06-30 · Lex Fridman Podcast · #105 – Robert Langer: Edison of Medicine · IDENTIFIED FROM THE TRANSCRIPT · source
“I think the business aspects are you have to be a good judge of people so that you hire the right people. You have to be strategic so you figure out if you do have that platform that could be used for all these different things and knowing that medical research is so expensive, what thing are you going to do first, second, third, fourth, and fifth. I think you need to have a good, like what I'll call FDA regulatory clinical trial strategy. I think you have to be able to raise money credibly. So there are a lot of things. You have to be good with people, good manager of people.”
2020-06-30 · Lex Fridman Podcast · #105 – Robert Langer: Edison of Medicine · IDENTIFIED FROM THE TRANSCRIPT · source
“Lot of times it's somebody in the lab like a postdoc or graduate student who spent a big part of their life doing it and that they want to work at that company because they have this passion that they want to see something they did make a difference in people's lives.”
2020-06-30 · Lex Fridman Podcast · #105 – Robert Langer: Edison of Medicine · IDENTIFIED FROM THE TRANSCRIPT · source
“That is almost what I'd call a platform that you could use it for different things, and certainly the drug delivery system example that I gave earlier is a good example of that. You could use it for drug A, B, C, D, E, and so forth. And I'd like to think that we've taken it far enough so that we've written at least one really good paper in a top journal, hopefully a number, that we've reduced it to practice in animal models that we've filed patents, maybe had issued patents that have what I'll call very good and broad claims. That's sort of the key on a patent. When we've done it,”
2020-06-30 · Lex Fridman Podcast · #105 – Robert Langer: Edison of Medicine · IDENTIFIED FROM THE TRANSCRIPT · source
“Well, I break that down into a couple categories, and I'm a scientist, and certainly from the science standpoint, I'll go over that. But I actually think that really the most important thing is probably the business people that I work with. And when I look back at the companies that have done well, it's been because we've had great business people. And when they haven't done as well, we haven't had as good business people. But from a science standpoint, I think about that we've made some kind of discovery.”
2020-06-30 · Lex Fridman Podcast · #105 – Robert Langer: Edison of Medicine · IDENTIFIED FROM THE TRANSCRIPT · source
“Yeah, well, you do a certain amount of research, though that's not necessarily, has to be the case, but for us, usually it is. Usually we do a certain amount of research and make some findings. And we had a hypothesis, let's say we prove it or we make some discovery, we invent some technique, and then we write something up, what's called a disclosure. We give it to MIT's technology transfer office. They then give it to some patent attorneys and they use that. And plus talking to us and work on writing a patent. And then you go back and forth with the USPTO. That's the United States patent and trademark office. And they may not allow it the first, second, or third time, but they will tell you why they don't. You may adjust it, and maybe you'll eventually get it, and maybe you won't”
2020-06-30 · Lex Fridman Podcast · #105 – Robert Langer: Edison of Medicine · IDENTIFIED FROM THE TRANSCRIPT · source
“Well, you'd have to take a A particular disease, but the process is you start out with usually you start out with cells, then you'd go to animal models. Usually you have to do a couple animal models. And of course, the animal models aren't perfect for humans. And then you have to do three sets of clinical trials at a minimum, a phase one trial to show that it's safe in small number of patients, phase two trial to show that it's effective in a small number of patients, and a phase three trial to show that it's safe and effective in a large number of patients. And, you know, that could end up being hundreds or thousands of patients. And they have to be really carefully controlled studies. And, you know, you'd have to manufacture the drug. You'd have to really watch those patients. You have to be very concerned that it is going to be safe. And you look at C, does it treat the disease better than whatever the gold standard was before that?”
2020-06-30 · Lex Fridman Podcast · #105 – Robert Langer: Edison of Medicine · IDENTIFIED FROM THE TRANSCRIPT · source
“Money, but a pain goes hard to know. I mean, but usually proving things that are proving that something new is safe and effective in people is almost always the biggest expense.”
2020-06-30 · Lex Fridman Podcast · #105 – Robert Langer: Edison of Medicine · IDENTIFIED FROM THE TRANSCRIPT · source
“Well, I think for the most part their strengths. I think that if you didn't have patents, especially in medicine, you'd never get the funding that it takes to make a new drug or a new device. I mean, which, according to Tufts, to make a new drug costs over $2 billion right now. And nobody would even come close to giving you that money, any of that money, if it weren't for... The patent system because then anybody else could do it. That then leads to the negative though sometimes somebody does have a very successful drug and you certainly want to try to make it available to everybody. And so the patent system Allows it allowed to happen in the first place, but maybe it'll impede it after a little bit, or certainly to some people, or to some companies, once it is out there.”
2020-06-30 · Lex Fridman Podcast · #105 – Robert Langer: Edison of Medicine · IDENTIFIED FROM THE TRANSCRIPT · source
“I think there's both, you know, every so often a new technique or a new technology comes out. I mean, genetic engineering was an example. I mentioned CRISPR. You know, I think every so often things happen that make a big difference. But still, there's to try to really make progress, make a new drug, make a new device, there's a lot of things I don't know if I'd call them incremental, but there's a lot, a lot of work that needs to be done.”
2020-06-30 · Lex Fridman Podcast · #105 – Robert Langer: Edison of Medicine · IDENTIFIED FROM THE TRANSCRIPT · source
“Think it is exceptionally difficult to do, but that doesn't mean that it won't be done. There's a lot of companies and people trying to do it. And I think in some areas it will be done. Some of the ways that you might lower the bar are not just taking not necessarily doing it directly, but you could take a cell that might be useful, but you want to give it some cancer killing capability, something like what's called a car T cell. And that might be a different way of somehow making a CAR T cell and maybe making it better. So there might be sort of easier things and rather than just fixing the whole body. So the way a lot of things have moved in medicine over time is stepwise. I can see things that might be easier to do than say fix a brain. That would be very hard to do. But maybe someday that'll happen too.”
2020-06-30 · Lex Fridman Podcast · #105 – Robert Langer: Edison of Medicine · IDENTIFIED FROM THE TRANSCRIPT · source
“No, that's an interesting question. I certainly think what's happening right now with CRISPR is a beautiful idea that certainly wasn't my idea. I mean, but I think it's very interesting to hear what people have capitalized on is that there's a mechanism by which bacteria are able to destroy viruses and that understanding that leads to machinery to put to sort of cut and paste genes and fix a cell.”
2020-06-30 · Lex Fridman Podcast · #105 – Robert Langer: Edison of Medicine · IDENTIFIED FROM THE TRANSCRIPT · source
“I don't know that we'll see a radical increase in longevity, but I think that in certain areas we'll see people that live better lives and maybe somewhat longer lives.”
2020-06-30 · Lex Fridman Podcast · #105 – Robert Langer: Edison of Medicine · IDENTIFIED FROM THE TRANSCRIPT · source
“Yeah, well, of course, I'm an optimist, and I also feel a time frame if we're talking about someday, some day could be hundreds of years. But I think that, yes, someday, I think we will be able to regenerate many things and are different strategies that one might use. One might use some cells themselves, one might use some molecules that might help regenerate the cells. And so I think there are different possibilities.”
2020-06-30 · Lex Fridman Podcast · #105 – Robert Langer: Edison of Medicine · IDENTIFIED FROM THE TRANSCRIPT · source
“Yes, and then finally there's some suppressive drugs which will suppress the immune response. That's right now what's done, say, for a liver transplant.”
2020-06-30 · Lex Fridman Podcast · #105 – Robert Langer: Edison of Medicine · IDENTIFIED FROM THE TRANSCRIPT · source
“There can be problems with accepting it. I think maybe in particular you might mean rejection by the body. So there are multiple ways that people are trying to deal with that. One way, which was what we've done with Dan Anderson, who was one of my former postdocs, and I mentioned this a little bit before for pancreas, is encapsulating the cell, so immune cells or antibodies can't get in and attack them. So that's a way to protect them. Other strategies could be making the cells non-immunogenic, which might be done by different either techniques which might mask them or using some gene editing approaches. So there are different ways that people are trying to do that. And of course, if you use the patient's own cells or cells from a close relative, that might be another way.”
2020-06-30 · Lex Fridman Podcast · #105 – Robert Langer: Edison of Medicine · IDENTIFIED FROM THE TRANSCRIPT · source
“Well, there have been people out of working on that too. We've done a little bit with that, but there are people who've done a lot on neural stem cells. And I know Evan Snyder, who's been one of our collaborators on some of our spinal cord works, done work like that, and there have been other people as well.”
2020-06-30 · Lex Fridman Podcast · #105 – Robert Langer: Edison of Medicine · IDENTIFIED FROM THE TRANSCRIPT · source
“Well, at different stages, people are like skin, blood vessels. There's clinical trials going now for helping patients hear better for patients that might be paralyzed, for patients that have different eye problems and different groups have worked on just about everything, new liver, new kidneys. I mean, there have been all kinds of work done in this area. Some of it's early, but there's certainly a lot of activity.”
2020-06-30 · Lex Fridman Podcast · #105 – Robert Langer: Edison of Medicine · IDENTIFIED FROM THE TRANSCRIPT · source
“Yes, I mean, they've been approved now for, I mean, different groups have made them, different companies and different professors, but they've been approved for burn victims and for patients with diabetic skin ulcers.”
2020-06-30 · Lex Fridman Podcast · #105 – Robert Langer: Edison of Medicine · IDENTIFIED FROM THE TRANSCRIPT · source
“Yeah, well, so skin's already been made and approved by the FDA. There are advanced clinical trials, like what are called phase three trials that are at complete or near completion for making new blood vessels. One of my former students, Laura Nicholson, led a lot of that.”
2020-06-30 · Lex Fridman Podcast · #105 – Robert Langer: Edison of Medicine · IDENTIFIED FROM THE TRANSCRIPT · source
“I would say the answer to that is yes. I think right now people are working mostly on validating these kinds of chips for saying, well, it does work as effectively or hopefully as just putting something in the body. But I think someday what you suggested certainly would be possible.”
2020-06-30 · Lex Fridman Podcast · #105 – Robert Langer: Edison of Medicine · IDENTIFIED FROM THE TRANSCRIPT · source
“Not necessarily. It could be though, but it doesn't have to be. It could just be a structure that's not in vivo, so to speak, that's outside the body Canvas is not.”
2020-06-30 · Lex Fridman Podcast · #105 – Robert Langer: Edison of Medicine · IDENTIFIED FROM THE TRANSCRIPT · source
“I think that's a good explanation of what you just said off to use that CASM. That's good. Yeah, so I think that that's fair, and the chip could be such a canvas, could be fibers that are made of plastics and that you'd put in the body someday.”
2020-06-30 · Lex Fridman Podcast · #105 – Robert Langer: Edison of Medicine · IDENTIFIED FROM THE TRANSCRIPT · source
“Yeah, well, I think there's multiple components. One is having generally some type of scaffold. That's what Jay Vakanti and I started many, many years ago. And then on that scaffold, You might put different cell types, which could be a cartilage cell, a bone cell, could be a stem cell that might differentiate into different things, could be more than one cell.”
2020-06-30 · Lex Fridman Podcast · #105 – Robert Langer: Edison of Medicine · IDENTIFIED FROM THE TRANSCRIPT · source
“So that tissue engineering regenerative medicine has to do with building an organ or tissue from scratch. So, you know, someday maybe we can build a liver or make new cartilage and also would enable you to someday create organs on a chip, which people, we and others are trying to do, which might lead to better drug testing and maybe less testing on animals or people.”
2020-06-30 · Lex Fridman Podcast · #105 – Robert Langer: Edison of Medicine · IDENTIFIED FROM THE TRANSCRIPT · source
“Need to make better drugs for so many diseases, I mean cancer, diabetes, I mean we, you know, there's heart disease and rare diseases. There are many, many situations where it would be great if we could do better and help more people.”
2020-06-30 · Lex Fridman Podcast · #105 – Robert Langer: Edison of Medicine · IDENTIFIED FROM THE TRANSCRIPT · source
“Well, I think, you know, pharmaceutical drugs are really important. I mean, the life expectancy and life quality of people over many, many years has increased tremendously. And I think that's a really good thing. I think one thing that would also be good is if we could extend that more and more to people in the developing world, which is something that our lab has been doing with the Gates Foundation or trying to do. So I think ways in which it could improve, I mean, If there was some way to reduce costs, that's certainly an issue people are concerned about. If there was some way to help people in poor countries, that would also be a good thing. And then, of course, we still.”
2020-06-30 · Lex Fridman Podcast · #105 – Robert Langer: Edison of Medicine · IDENTIFIED FROM THE TRANSCRIPT · source
“I do. I think that AI can be useful in a number of parts of the chain. I mean, one, I think if you get a large amount of information, you know, say you have some chemical data because you've done high throughput screens. And I'll just make this up. But let's say I have, I'm trying to come up with a drug to treat disease X, whatever that disease is. And I have a test for that Hopefully a fast test. And let's say I test 10,000 chemical substances. Couple work, most of them don't work, some maybe work a little. But if I had the right kind of artificial intelligence, maybe you could look at the chemical structures and look at what works and see if there's certain commonalities, look at what doesn't work, and see what commonalities there are, and then maybe use that somehow to predict the next generation of things that you would test.”
2020-06-30 · Lex Fridman Podcast · #105 – Robert Langer: Edison of Medicine · IDENTIFIED FROM THE TRANSCRIPT · source
“Some day, I don't think we're very close to it yet, but someday, you know, that's nanotechnology and that would mean even miniaturizing some of the things that I just discussed, and we're certainly not at that point yet. But someday I expect we will be.”
2020-06-30 · Lex Fridman Podcast · #105 – Robert Langer: Edison of Medicine · IDENTIFIED FROM THE TRANSCRIPT · source
“Yeah, I think it depends on the particular delivery system. You know, of course, one of the things people are concerned about is cost. And if you add a lot of bells and whistles to something, it'll cost more. But I mean, we, for example, have made what I'll call intelligent microchips that can, you know, where you can send a signal and release drug in response to that signal. And I think systems like that microchip someday have the potential to do what you and I were just talking about, that there could be a signal like glucose and it could have some instruction to say when there's more glucose, deliver more insulin.”
2020-06-30 · Lex Fridman Podcast · #105 – Robert Langer: Edison of Medicine · IDENTIFIED FROM THE TRANSCRIPT · source
“Yes, there is. I mean, one of the things that we've done is encapsulate what are called beta cells. Those are insulin-producing cells in a way that they're safe and protected. And then what will happen is glucose will go in. Cells, so we'll make insulin. And so that's an example.”
2020-06-30 · Lex Fridman Podcast · #105 – Robert Langer: Edison of Medicine · IDENTIFIED FROM THE TRANSCRIPT · source
“Be either one. I mean, you know, I mean, one example might be if you were diabetic, if you had more got more glucose, could you get more insulin? But that's just an example.”
2020-06-30 · Lex Fridman Podcast · #105 – Robert Langer: Edison of Medicine · IDENTIFIED FROM THE TRANSCRIPT · source
“Drug delivery is A drug to go where you want it at the level you want it in a safe way. Some of the big challenges, I mean, there are a lot. I mean, I'd say one is could you target? Right cell like we talked about cancers or some way to deliver a drug just to a cancer cell and no other cell. Another challenge is to get drugs across different barriers like could you ever give insulin orally? Or give it passively transdermally? Can you get drugs across the blood-brain barrier? I mean, there are lots of big challenges. Can you make smart drug delivery systems that might respond to physiologic signals in the body?”
2020-06-30 · Lex Fridman Podcast · #105 – Robert Langer: Edison of Medicine · IDENTIFIED FROM THE TRANSCRIPT · source
“Well, at a high level, it is amazing. I mean, evolution is amazing. The way I look at your question, the fact that we evolved, have evolved the way we've done, I mean, it's pretty remarkable.”
2020-06-30 · Lex Fridman Podcast · #105 – Robert Langer: Edison of Medicine · IDENTIFIED FROM THE TRANSCRIPT · source
“I don't think there's a single way, you know, a single way to go about something in terms of characterizing the entire drug discovery process. If I look at the blood vessel one, yeah, there the first step was to To have the kinds of theories that Dr. Folkman had, the second step was to have the techniques where you could study blood vessel growth for the first time and at least quantitative or semi-quantitate it. Third step was to find substances that would stop blood vessels from growing. Fourth step was to maybe purify those substances. There are many other steps too. I mean, before you have an effective drug, you have to show that it's safe. You have to show that it's effective and you start with animals. You ultimately go to patients. And there are multiple kinds of clinical trials you have to do.”
2020-06-30 · Lex Fridman Podcast · #105 – Robert Langer: Edison of Medicine · IDENTIFIED FROM THE TRANSCRIPT · source